Marxism as a Sociological Theory

The ecology of Karachi

The ecology of Karachi Introduction Karachi is the largest city of Pakistan. It is the main financial center and also the largest seaport in the country. The city has an estimated population of about 15 million people which makes it one of the world’s major cities in the world in terms of population.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The ecology of Karachi specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Karachi harbors numerous industrial and economic activities. Thus, it forms the center for banking and industry in Pakistan. The major corporations present in this city are automobile industry, textile, shipping and medical research. This paper discusses how the emergence and development of this city has impacted the environment and the ecosystem throughout the years. Ecology of the city Karachi is a city built at the cost of the Indian Ocean. This means that the city has major interactions between the human population, the fauna and flora, and the e nvironment of the city. The Karachi coast has a diversity of flora such as green sea weed that grows at the rocky shores (Ghani para. 4). These weeds are a source of food and shelter for the epifauna of the coast. Karachi’s industries cause a great impact on the environment. The industries discharge their industrial effluents to the coastal areas. These cause the coastal area of Karachi to be badly affected by the industrial and untreated sewage at the harbor. A survey done on the sea water of Karachi harbor reveals that the industrial effluent and untreated sewerage causes eutrophication of the sea water. This means that the eutrophication that causes growth of microorganisms such as bacterial has a detrimental effect on other sea dwelling organisms. The effluent is usually carried along to the Karachi harbor through the Lyari River. Since the tides of the Karachi harbor are semi diurnal type, the effluent is not completely flushed out. This means that there is a poor circul ation condition that causes hydrogen sulfide to be produced. The hydrogen sulfide is known to cause stress on the marine organisms (Saleem 1). In addition, poor development of infrastructure is believed to increase the impervious surface area of the city. This causes flash floods and run-off that may increase erosion and non-point pollutants if the water is not channeled properly. It is also important to note that impervious ground reduces the rate of groundwater recharge (URC 3). Other pollution sources include the release of green house gases by the Karachi industries. Carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide are produced by these industries thereby contributing to global warming. The increased number of motor vehicle usage causes excessive release of carbon monoxide which is harmful if inhaled by humans (Kumar and Chaturvedi 172).Advertising Looking for essay on ecology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The effects of the growth of this city are more disadvantageous especially if not checked. Thus, the increased in the demand for housing in Karachi also creates a poor environment that the people are exposed to live in. It is worth noting that the city is trying to tackle these environmental problems through various programs that involve industrial and solid waste management. Solid wastes generated by the city are managed by way of recycling. The informal sector is involved in performing the functions of waste management. The waste management program has helped reduce the negative impacts of waste on the environment such as diseases and eutrophication. Conclusion Karachi is the largest city of Pakistan. It is the main financial center and also the largest seaport in Pakistan. Karachi harbors numerous industrial and economic activities. Karachi’s industries cause a great impact on the environment. The industries discharge their industrial effluents to the coastal areas causing eutrophication. O ther pollution sources include the release of green house gases by the Karachi industries. Carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide are produced by these industries thereby contributing to global warming. Karachi city is trying to deal with ecological and environmental problems mainly by way of waste management. Ghani, Naseem. Diversity of Green Sea Weed Fauna of Karachi Coast. N.d. 19 April, 2011 https://library.kau.edu.sa/Files/320/Researches/34655_Pages%20from%206-9.pdf Kumar, Nagesh Chaturvedi, Sachin. Environmental Requirements and Market Access: Reflection from South Asia. Academic Foundations, New Delhi. 2007. Print. Saleem, Monawwar. Study of Heavy Metal Pollution Level and Impact on the Fauna and Flora of the Karachi and Gwadar Coast. National institute of oceanography. Project number 50022801. (2002).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The ecology of Karachi specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More URC. Land Use Trends fr om Karachi Strategic Development 2020. N. d. Web.

Assessing the Impact of Macroeconomic Policies on the Economy Essays

Assessing the Impact of Macroeconomic Policies on the Economy Essays Assessing the Impact of Macroeconomic Policies on the Economy Essay Assessing the Impact of Macroeconomic Policies on the Economy Essay Department of industrial relations and public administration Lagos state university, Ojo, Nigeria.. Abstract The regime of banking sector reforms leading to recapitalization and consolidation in Nigeria and the consequent merger and or acquisition of existing banks into twenty five (25) by 2005, and later eighteen (18) by 2012 brought along their trails attendant labor problems in terms of educational diversity, job security and productivity, decent employment questions.The study review post consolidation performance of the banking sector to assess the extent to which the sector meets consolidation objective using post development approach. It was found that while the alliance and marriage of seemingly compatible partners are settling down, the society is at the receiving end of the severance of labor and the enlargement of the pool of reserved army of the unemployed. The fall-out therefore is double-edge for the economy and the society. Keywords: Labor reforms, recapitalization, con solidation and post development 1. 0Introduction Private and public businesses are continually being challenged by performance. Performance success is very minimal measured on the indices of what Alos (2006) catalogued as: what the customer needs and values, response to environmental changes and impact on the quality of the people. The issue of performance effectiveness or reengineering organisation has preoccupied the minds of organization practitioners, researchers and watchers since 1990s. Therefore, all over the world, many economies had carried out various reforms to ensure effectiveness of the 166 European Scientific JournalMay edition vol. 8, No. 9 ISSN: 1857 – 7881 (Print) e ISSN 1857- 7431 real sectors. The performance revolution started in the private sector. Its effects spread to the public sector influenced by ideas from public management school. Nigeria as a nation is not left out in this reform revolution to ensure quality of life for its citizenry. Legal and i nstitutional frameworks were put in place to re-engineer the economy and the performance values of the real sectors. The blue print of the current reforms agenda is set out in the National Economic Empowerment and Development Strategy (NEEDS) document.Some of the reforms include (1)power sector reform; (2) ports reforms meant to ensure timely clearing of goods within forty eight hours (3) deregulation of oil and gas sub-sector to forestall perennial fuel scarcity; (4) deregulation in the telecommunication industry to reduce government participation, create employment and commerce (5) the banking sub-sector /recapitalization/consolidation to make it play its rightful role as the dominant sector of the economy in driving growth and development in other sector. The current banking sector reforms captioned as recapitalization policy was issued out on Tuesday July 6, 2004.Capitalization is setting the capital base upon which a player can set up and be licensed to operate banking function s. It is setting a capital base which was given as twenty five billion naira (N25b) as at 2005. The former capital base was two billion Naira (N2b), which many banks could not even afford. In Nigeria, empirical studies had been carried out on the relationship between banking reforms and economic growth (Balogun, 2007, Fadare, 2010); consolidation and macro economic performance (see Somoye, 2008); consolidation and adoption of e-banking (Ayo, Adewoye and Oni 2010; Chimeke, Evwiekpaefe, and Chete, 2006).The implication of banking reforms on labor has scarcely been researched. The main objective of this study is to review the banking sector reforms 2004 – 2011 and the extent to which the objectives set are met and also, the implication of the reforms on labor as regards employment: security, decent employment, employees’ satisfaction and the outcomes of these variables for the society. 2. 0 Literature Review and Theoretical Framework Consolidation simply means to build on or improve to the extent of stability Adeyemi (2007) considers it to represent the idea of investment and the coming together of firms or enterprises as a single entity.In the banking sector of Nigeria the essence of banking consolidation 167 European Scientific Journal May edition vol. 8, No. 9 ISSN: 1857 – 7881 (Print) e ISSN 1857- 7431 is to reposition the nations banking industry for global competitiveness and also to ensure a strong and reliable banking sector that will guarantee the safety of the depositors’ money. Consolidation as a means of reducing over capacity is doubtful (Somoye 2008).The effectiveness of banking sector consolidation as a remedy for financial stability and in correcting the defects in the financial sector for sustainable development had not been corroborated by similar exercise in Europe, America and Asia in the last decade (Somoye, 2008). Rather, crises and failures as depicted by credit crises and transatlantic mortgage financial turmoi l erupted which, in Nigeria, seriously affected invested money values specifically, stock values.Rather than restructuring leading to reduction in over capacity as indicated by consolidation apologists, an improvement strategy that would accommodate the resources available and expand them is advocated by internally induced consolidation apologists. The banking sub-sector in Nigeria witnessed sharp drop in credit rate to the real sector which affected return on shareholders’ fund (Adeyemi, 2007). Credit went more to foreign exchange rather than the real sectors. The capacity of real sector to generate employment weakened.The access of small and medium enterprises (SMES) and the informal sectors to credit also dwindled (Somoye, 2008; NDIC, 2008; CBN, 2008). Structuring to the economists is adapting to the demands of increasingly global markets for greater efficiencies. Sociologist always view the social impact, specifically the social problems engendered by externalities which results in social disruption especially the negative effects on level of job security, commitment, psychological well being and turnover intentions.The effect of these on organization efficiency, contrary to reformist postulation may be negative. Matanmi (2005) saw a yawning gap between the immediate or short term effects of economic reforms and the necessary ideals of job security. He concluded that the ability of reforms to create employment in the last one decade had been very few and far between. Adeyemi (2007) also agreed that banking reforms in Nigeria resulted in job loss, variance level of compensation and remuneration package for different merging groups and board room squabbles among cliques of the merging banks. . 1 Theoretical Framework Post development approach is a reaction to the dilema of development. Instead of abundance, discourse and strategies of development produce its opposite: underdevelopment and 168 European Scientific Journal May edition vol. 8, No. 9 ISSN: 1857 – 7881 (Print) e ISSN 1857- 7431 impoverishment, untold exploitation and repression. (Sidaway 2008). The post development apologist claim that change brought about by modernity or driven by the west would always meet with disillusionment on the part of the people of developing countries. 2. 2Banking Sector Reforms in Nigeria Banking operations began in 1892 owned mainly by expatriates (Somoye, 2008). They remained however unregulated until 1952 (Fadare, 2010). There were expansions with indigenous ownership by 1950s. However, many of the banks failed between 1947 and 1952. The first regulation of banks was put in place by Banking Ordinance of 1952. This was ineffective as there was no Central Bank until 1958 to carry out supervising or control measures. Bank ownership structure shifted by 1970s with indigenization decree. This allows more Nigerian investment in the banking industry.The Nigerian enterprises promotion Decree (NEPD) limits foreign ownership of Nigerian bu sinesses to 60% in 1972 and 40% in 1976. The 1990’s reform allowed for 100% individual ownership which was a shift from existing 10% for individual ownership and 30% for corporate ownership. This led to the proliferation of banks. Banking sub sector recapitalization policy was issued out on Tuesday, July 6, 2004. Capitalization is setting the capital base upon which a player can set up and be licensed to operate banking functions. Recapitalization is setting a new capital base.The essence is to consolidate the sector to enhance competitiveness and capacity to play important role of financing investment (Somoye, 2008). Consolidation which may result in increase in bank size through merger and acquisition has the potential of increasing bank returns through increase revenue and cost efficiency gains. It may also reduce industry risks through the eliminations of weak banks and create better diversification opportunities (Furlong, 1998). Recapitalization policies set twenty five billion Naira (N25b) as the new minimum capital base for banks operating in Nigeria.The former capital base was two billion naira (N2b) and many banks could not even meet this. The objective of recapitalization is captured in the governor of Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN) Charles Soludos words thus the banking reform is to: (1) reposition the nations banking industry for global competitiveness; (2) ensure a strong and reliable banking sector that will guarantee the safety of the depositors money; (3) play active development role in the nations’ economy; 169 European Scientific Journal May edition vol. 8, No. 9 ISSN: 1857 – 7881 (Print) ISSN 1857- 7431 (4) (5) make the banks less dependent on public sector fund, and be capable of financing the real sector (New Age Apri17, 2005). A time frame of eighteen months terminating in December 25, 2005 was set for prospective player to meet the capitalization line. To facilitate compliance the following carrots were offered by CB N. Banks that met the deadline shall: (1) (2) (3) (4) deal in foreign exchange; take public sector deposit; be recommended to fiscal authorities to collect public sector revenue, and; manage part of Nigeria external revenue. New Age April 12, 2005); Furtherance to this, nine billion Naira (N9b) loan write off was offered for weak banks to make them attractive for acquisition so as to protect the system, the depositors, and employees as a results of liquidation. 2. 2. 1The Need for reform: The Banking sector is one of the dominant sectors of the economy. It serves as the engine of growth for the real sector financing, Its stability and strength and consolidation will to a large extent influence other sectors.Any policies in the banking sector including its activities affect the micro-economic situation and acting as consultant with qualitative advice to the customers will drive the economy as it were. An inventory of Nigerian banks between 1994 and 2001 as revealed by Nigerian Deposi t Insurance Corporation shows that (NDIC, 2004; National Mirror 2005). (1) A total of thirty five (35) licensed banks went into distress and were eventually liquidated. Out of these, thirteen (13) were commercial banks eighteen (18) merchants and one (1) cooperative (2) The loss to depositors was two billion naira (#2. b) (3) Four thousand (4000) workers lost their job. Omeife (2005) calculated that an average of 3 banks per year was liquidated. That is spanning the period of eight years. The liquidation was as a result of in-effectiveness and inefficiency arising from (1) financial fraud, (2) insiders’ credit abuse resulting in huge non-performing credit, (3) low quality manpower, (4) inefficiency of management, (5) inaccurate reporting and non compliance with regulatory requirements(6) low aggregate credit as percentage of the GDP to the domestic 170 European Scientific Journal May edition vol. 8, No. 9ISSN: 1857 – 7881 (Print) e ISSN 1857- 7431 economy (20%) Idowu, 2006; Adeyemi, 2007; Cowry research, 2009). By 2005 the following were the status of the banks in terms of their standing Table 1 Category Sound Satisfactory Marginal Unsound 2001 10 6. 3 8 9 2002 13 54 13 10 2003 11 53 14 9 2004 10 51 16 10 Source: CBN reports and statement of accounts 2004 The impacts of these on the economy include the following: (1) There is sociological implication for the social nets of the sacked workers and the multiplier effects on other real sectors Social nets is the web of relationship established by an individual.In African setting, they include lots of extended family members that are dependent on such workers and which he/she in turn provides financial supports. (2) The confidence depositors have in banking system waned. (3) The economy became depressed as a result of loss of money. (4) Increased unemployment was witnessed. The loss of deposit definitely stalled other businesses and the spiral effect can only be imagined. At the announcement of the ba nking consolidation, not more than few banks could go it alone. Therefore, merger and or acquisition were necessitated..The existing eighty nine banks went through the process of merger and or acquisition, and twenty five banks eventually emerged by December 25, 2005 deadline. Table 1 shows the merged banks and their capital base. 171 European Scientific Journal May edition vol. 8, No. 9 ISSN: 1857 – 7881 (Print) e ISSN 1857- 7431 Table 2 S/N GROUP MERGING BANKS Access bank, Marina Int’l Capital Bank Afribank, Afribank Merchant Diamond, Lion Bank Eco bank COMBINED ASSETS DEC. 2005, ‘N’ BILLION 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Access Afribank Diamond Eco Bank 28. 5 29 33. 25 Over 25 25 30 29 44. 62 28 34 35 51. 7 25 31. 26 Equatorial Trust Equitorial Trust, Devcom FCMB Fidelity First Bank First Inland Guaranty Trust IBTC Chartered Intercontinental FCMB, COOP Dev. NAMB Ltd Fidelity, FSB Int’l, Manny First Bank, FBN Merchant, MBC Int’l Fi rst Atlantic, Inland, IMB Int’l NUB Int’l Guaranty Trust Bank IBTC, Regent Banks Intercontinental, Equity, Global, Gateway Nigeria Int’l Bank Nigeria Int’l Bank (City Group) Oceanic Bank Platinum Skye Oceanic Bank and International Trust Platinum Bank ; Habib Bank (Bank PHB) Prudent Bank, EIB International, Cooperative 37 Bank, Bond Bank ; Reliance Bank 17 Spring Bank CITI, ENS Inter.Bank, Guardian Express Bank, Over 25 ACB Inter Bank, Omega Bank, Fountain Trust Bank ; TRANS, International Bank. 18 19 Stanbic Bank Standard Chartered Bank Stanbic Bank Standard Chartered Bank 25 26 20 United Bank of UBA, and Standard Trust Bank Africa 50 172 European Scientific Journal May edition vol. 8, No. 9 ISSN: 1857 – 7881 (Print) e ISSN 1857- 7431 21 Sterling Bank Magnum Trust Bank, NAL Bank, Indo-Nigeria 25 Bank ; Trust Bank of Africa. 22 Union Bank Union Bank, Union Merchant, Board Bank and 58 Universal Trust Bank 23 24 25 Unity Bank WEMA Bank Zenith Bank W EMA ; National Bank Zenith 0 26. 2 38 Sources: Compiled from CBN Press Release (3/1/06), Financial Standards (16/1/06), and the Comet (3/1/06). 2. 3 Post Consolidation The Nigeria society woke up by August 14, 2009 to find out that the banks were not stable after all. The Central bank of Nigeria (CBN) intervened again purportedly to save the banking industry from imminent collapse. Five Banks were identified for rescue as a result of poor capital adequacy, high risk assets poor corporate governance tending towards CEOs corruption; erosion of share holders fund, high liquidity ratio and credit crises.Whereas the twenty five (25) banks that passed the recapitalization test were declared sound in 2005, by 2006, ten (10) were declared sound, five (5) satisfactory five (5) as marginal and five (5) unsound (CBN, 2006). Corporate governance crises, sharp practices, and corruption were also alleged. Asset Management Corporation of Nigeria (AMCON) was set up to manage the toxic debt or non p erforming loan (NPL) of ten (10) unsound banks. About N680b was injected into these banks and then top executive changed. As at 2011, three of the banks were nigerianized and their names changed.This suggests the inability of consolidation to ensure risk control, transparency and accountability among many of the banks. Two other banks intercontinental and oceanic were acquired by Access bank and Ecobank respectively by 2010. 3. 0 The Effects of Banking Sector Consolidation on labor and the Economy Banking sector consolidation through recapitalization, has these attendant economic benefits (1) The process of recapitalization and the consequent merger and or acquisition engendered many of the banks to get registered with the Nigerian Stock Exchange (NSE) and therefore get listed (publicly quoted).Ownership of the banks became widened and public. Many Nigerians can now own some stakes in the banking sector rather than private ownership that 173 European Scientific Journal May edition v ol. 8, No. 9 ISSN: 1857 – 7881 (Print) e ISSN 1857- 7431 were the pictures of many banks pre consolidation era. This demands that the various boards become more responsive and alive to their responsibilities. (2) Banks were able to shore up their shares, boosting both individual and corporate investments. Locally and internationally; about $652million of foreign direct investment (FDI) was attracted (Fadare, 2010). 3) Banking restructuring and strategy that are information and communication technology (ICT) driven; a shift from the manual to automated systems involving the use of various e-banking and e-payment systems. There has been users’ acceptance of this because of their convenience, time savings and they also meet transaction needs (Adesina and Ayo, 2010). It has also led to the flexibility of business on the part of the banks. (4) Enhanced customer relationships through creation of facilities and instruments that enable easy banking.Intending customers can ope rate their accounts through telephone 24 hours a day, seven days a week, and even on public Holidays (GT Bank 2006/2007 Interim Reports) (5) Best practice which have earned some of the banks conferment of the International Standard Organization (ISO) 9001: 2000 certification award by the Standard Organization of Nigeria (SON) (6) The waned confidence of the public in the banking sector is changing for the positive as shown in the average deposit rise post consolidation from 10,482. 36b Naira in 2004 to 188,478. b Naira in 2006. (See table 3). Table 3 Pre and post consolidation performance of the Nigerian Banks Macroeconomic indications N’m2004a N’m2005b N’m2006b % charge measure/decrease (-) or differences (D) (+) Average deposit (N’m) Average networth (N’m) 10,482. 36 7,708. 73 85,007. 13 19708. 88 445,008. 9 18,478. 55 38,831. 31 525,482. 0 27. 82 +1690. 0500 +403. 73% +68. 87% Credit to the private sector 311,646. 8 to private sector growth rate 26. 6 174 European Scientific Journal May edition vol. 8, No. 9 ISSN: 1857 – 7881 (Print) e ISSN 1857- 7431Return on equity % Assets utilization % 35. 28 33. 62 30. 8 12. 72 11. 2 11. 04 +0. 18 (D) 24. 16 (D) Source: CBN 2006 Publication Somoye, 2008 (7) Real sector -financing especially the financing of small and medium scales enterprise (SMEs) GTBank for instance sets aside #2. b for this purpose, though this is not adequate. (8) Competitiveness: Narrowing down the numbers of the existing bank evokes creativity, innovativeness service delivery, creating strategy to make the banks stay afloat in the competitive environment. The net-worth of banks grew by +403. 3% between 2004 to 2006 (see table 3 above). (9) Banking performance are also gaining the confidence of the regulatory agency as some of the banks are concluding arrangement to manage Nigeria external reserves (Idowu, 2006). (10) Banking culture is gradually expanding all over the country as the banks are expanding their point of presence. The cashless culture that will become a culture in 2013 will further reinforce this. 4. 0 Banking Consolidation: Challenges The process of recapitalization and post consolidation in Nigeria brought along its trail erger and acquisition. The following become unresolved issues. The issues can be categorized as pre and post consolidation. 4. 1 Pre-Consolidation (1) Unemployment: Rationalization during merger created unemployment. While it was not possible to confirm the number of workers disengaged as a result of the exercise (as at the time of writing this paper), the unconfirmed number has been said to be high. It is not possible though to have two Chairmen or two Managing Directors, etc,, It has not been however proved that banking sector had been adequately staffed.Efforts could be made to retrain workers for other challenges. The disengaged workers are burdens to the society, lowers national productivity, increased poverty, stress, and other psychological problems (Idowu, 2006). (2) Reneging on Collective Agreements: Many banks managements reneged on their collective agreement with the Unions. First Bank of Nigeria (FBN) for instance, sacked 1200 175 European Scientific Journal May edition vol. 8, No. 9 ISSN: 1857 – 7881 (Print) e ISSN 1857- 7431 workers (New Age April 7, 2005).The Association of Banks, Insurance and Financial Institution (ASSBIFI) reacted by accusing the management of being insensitive and confrontational to organized labor in the country through its inconsistencies. It also accused the management of not consulting with it in line with earlier agreement on declaring redundancy. Also, the merger arising from UBA and Standard Trust promised that no members of the two banks would be retrenched. This has not been so. Many Higher National Diploma HND holders and contract staff had not been given full employment. 3) Diversity issues: The gulf between Higher National Diploma (HND) and Bachelors Degree holders rear ed its head. The HND holders were the first to be rationalized at the conclusion of the merger exercise. This has no regard for performance level of the individuals, and all other factors besides educational background that account for individual performance; factors like reward system, organization structure, organization supports (adequate tools, motivation and leadership styles).The society suffers as the pool of unemployment widened. Admission seeking into Polytechnics nosedived. Sectoral allocation to this sub sector also becomes a waste (Idowu, 2006). 4. 2 Post Consolidation (1) Perceptions of uncertainty and insecurity of tenure pervade banking landscape among the workers. This is because rationalization exercise is still on. The consequence of this is less commitment and higher propensity to quit. Many workers have already changed jobs to other sectors due to this factor.The fraud in Nigeria banks had been correlated with high level of job insecurity Omoife (2012) found that disengaged workers vent their anger on the banks using their knowledge of the workings of the banking hall to defraud banks The fraud ran into N189b. This would go a long way in capacity building and loan to real sector which can lead to employment generation and expansion. (2) Unethical/Moral questions at both the pre and post merger era, some banks engaged unqualified and inexperienced young ladies as marketers to woo big clients so as to meet the 25 billion Naira target and to shore up their capital base.Targets were given and management looked the other way not minding how these targets were met The marketers were given near impossible targets to meet Not meeting target led to job loss. The female workers were therefore exposed to sexual harassment, and all other marketers, to other unethical behaviors. This negates International Labor Organisation (ILO) advocacy for decent employment 176 European Scientific Journal May edition vol. 8, No. 9 ISSN: 1857 – 7881 (Print) e ISSN 1857- 7431 3) Disillusionment: arising as a result of differentials in reward package and treatment for similar status and different merging groups, uncertainty of tenure, different career path for seemingly similar educational qualification, prejudices and biases expressed by the management of some of the banks against some groups (merging banks, educational: HND/Bachelors, Federal/ State universities. (4) Decent Employment: A report that has not been officially confirmed is the fact that some banks management asked HND holders to resign and reapply with their National Diploma (ND) qualification.As well, those that attained Bachelors degree or professional certificate are to re apply, serve probationary period in spite of the number of years that had been spent with the banks or the status of such individual. This is also in spite of the glass ceiling on the career path of HND or those possessing lower qualifications. Furthermore, the process of disengaging the workers were at best, immodest. Option of resigning or get retrenched: whichever becomes the lot of the workers, there were complaints of inadequate severance benefits if there was any paid.This is demeaning having no regard for best practice The consequences of all these include: I. II. III. IV. Labor has become cheapened Unions become weakened Career opportunity slowed down and Perhaps the banks gained and labor and society lost. (5). Corporate Governance Crisis Goje (2010) suggested that the weakness experienced by banking sector as regard corporate governance (CA) arrangement may have led to the current state whereby banks cannot safeguard against excessive risk taking. Recapitalization regime exposed the banks to non performing loans (NPL) and margin loan (ML) to the tune of N2. trullion Naira. The non performing loan (NPL) of some of the banks exceeded their Shareholders Funds (SHF). Eight of the banks Capital Adequacy (CA) was less than 10% and their Deposit Ratio (DR) were less than 25% (E topidiok, 2009). The diversion of deposits to foreign exchange trading including the transatlantic mortgage and financial crises led to loss of share holders fund values as many banks had to readjust shareholders stock as depicted in table 4. Table 4 177 European Scientific Journal May edition vol. 8, No. 9 ISSN: 1857 – 7881 (Print) ISSN 1857- 7431 INSURED BANKS’ ADJUSTED SHAREHOLDERS’ FUNDS AS AT DECEMBER, 2009 AND 2008 S/N BANKS SHAREHOLDERS’ SHAREHOLDERS’ FUND* (N’BILLION) FUND* (N’BILLION) 2008 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 Access Bank Nig. Plc Afribank Nigeria Plc Bank PHB Plc Citibank Nigeria Ltd Diamond Bank Plc Ecobank Nigeria Plc Equitorial Trust Bank Ltd Fidelity Bank Plc Finbank Plc First Bank of Nig. Plc First City Monument Bank Plc Guaranty Trust Bank Plc Intercontinental Bank Plc Oceanic Bank International Plc Skye Bank PlcSpring Bank Plc Stanbic IBTC Bank Plc Standard Chartered Bank Ltd Sterling Bank Plc Union Bank Plc United Bank for Africa Plc Unity Bank Plc Wema Bank Plc Zenith Bank Plc Total 167. 22 127. 38 243. 24 29. 40 95. 64 43. 45 32. 38 129. 55 112. 86 315. 75 137. 66 130. 03 195. 58 211. 52 96. 55 (48. 68) 67. 22 28. 47 20. 58 115. 93 191. 44 16. 94 26. 68 313. 39 2,802. 18 2009 154. 30 (221. 69) (126. 84) 31. 68 98. 31 26. 02 (46. 95) 129. 99 (123. 70) 293. 89 132. 17 141. 82 (336. 35) (192. 20) 79. 56 (94. 08) 74. 61 29. 66 20. 14 (38. 56) 114. 8 (4. 06) (3. 22) 310. 99 448. 99 178 European Scientific Journal May edition vol. 8, No. 9 ISSN: 1857 – 7881 (Print) e ISSN 1857- 7431 Source: NDIC Adjusted Shareholders’ Fund (Bank returns) The Apex Bank Code of Corporate Governance (CCG) set in 2006 and which was mandatory for all banks in the post consolidation era to comply with could not address insider trading, ineffective risk management and control. This accounted for the NPL crisis and therefore necessitated the establishment of Asset M anagement Corporation of Nigeria (AMCON).The CBN also injected N608b and provided technical assistance by replacing the so called incapable Chief Executive Officers (CEOs) and Executive Director ED of 8 banks with new ones. The corporate governance crises also accounted for percentage decrees in return on equity (ROE) and return on assets (ROA) over the post consolidation years compare to pre consolidation as table 5 illustrates. Table 5 Pre and Post 2006 Recapitalization, Performance Evaluation Ratio for Nigeria Banks. Pre-recapitalization 2002 Net Interest Margin 11. 16 2003 14. 88 2004 9. 12 Post-recapitalization 2006 10. 7 2007 7. 71 2008 10. 21 (NM)% Yields (YEA)% Funding Return (ROE)% Return (ROE)% Source: NDIC Annual Report, Various Issues The return on equity (ROE) measuring the rate of return to shareholders that was 99. 45% in 2004 (pre-consolidation) fell to 27. 23% by 2008. Also, return on assets (ROA) that stood at 3. 9% pre consolidation (2004) reduced to 2. 58% by 200 8. This confirms post modernist/post development postulation that modernity like restructuring/reforms does not bring about organisational efficiency or capacity management loss of investment cannot lead to creation of employment.Also the purported over capacity of resources like labor that were eliminated does 179 on Assets 17. 55 4. 64 4. 62 27. 55 20. 32 18. 88 Cost on (FC)% 8. 09 Equity 86. 08 9. 42 00. 59 9. 47 99. 45 13. 05 41. 63 9. 63 29. 11 9. 66 27. 23 on Assets 4. 52 4. 13 3. 96 2. 63 2. 00 2. 58 European Scientific Journal May edition vol. 8, No. 9 ISSN: 1857 – 7881 (Print) e ISSN 1857- 7431 not corroborate the result pre-consolidation. Rather disillusionment, inefficiency still pervade banking sub-sector. 5. 0 Conclusion and Recommendation The banking sector is very crucial to economic growth.The consolidation period however reveal sharp practices against labor and society which would not benefit; the society and the labor but the banks themselves in terms of po sting huge profits: Organizations like banks always pay lip service to placing premium or value on their workers as usually reported in their annual reports. Human resource practices pre and post recapitalization regime does not confirm that their workers are their assets. Banking sector recapitalization carne with double edge: benefits and constraints on the economy, the people and the society.While the banks have achieved some efficiency in terms of its operations, treatment of men at work will further deepen unemployment, lead to disillusionment, uncertainty, job dissatisfaction and quitting. The Nigerian economy is still depressed. The Gross domestic products took a downward turn growing by 2. 5% in 2000 compared to 6. 9% in 2005 and further went down in 2009 and 2010 (GT bank 2006). Alo (2006) quoted wall street journal and Heritage foundation as rating Nigeria economy as worse of in August 2006 than it was the previous year and described it as repressed measured on index of Ec onomic Freedom.The rating for 2011 is no better. Nigeria ranked 106 and scored 56. 8% on index of economic freedom for 2010 and therefore grouped as unfree, unlike in the pre consolidation era. To be free means improvement in the overall quality of life and promotion of social and economic life (index of Economic Freedom, 2011). There is the need to manage people well if the objectives of recapitalization are to be met in concrete terms. Recommendations: A lot needs to be done and the following are recommended 1. Institutional machinery should be put in place to address the issue of undervaluing, under utilization of workers.Training and retraining of existing employees to improve their capacity for new demand rather than retrenchment is advocated. The banks’ net-worth and profit after tax had increased geometrically (see table 3). The capacity to employ, train and retain more workers and therefore expand employment should not be a constraint as 180 European Scientific Journa l May edition vol. 8, No. 9 ISSN: 1857 – 7881 (Print) e ISSN 1857- 7431 expansion of branches to new areas is ongoing and new facilities and instruments are also continually being introduced. 2.The federal government and its banking regulatory agencies should do more to ensure creation of employment. In a situation where institutional framework will lead to rationalization, efforts should be made to follow due process, retrain people to retain them in other capacities rather than worsen the unemployment problem. 3. Diversity management should be a best practice and this should be included by standard organization of Nigeria (ISON) in conferment of ISO award. Diversity management is a process by which the diverse elements in organization are enabled to release their potential in organizational attainment of goals.This involves valuing and rewarding people for what they are: race, sex, educational background personality disposition and ethnicity. While the presidency made proc lamation on HND/Bachelors dichotomy in 2006, legal framework and moral persuasions should be pursued to make organization embrace diversity management as best practices. 4. The best practice principle demands that banking organization in Nigeria should place value on their workers, manage them strategically to release their energy for accomplishment of organizational goals. 5.Regulatory bodies should put in place periodic monitoring to ensure compliance with code of corporate governance by banks. Stress test on banks by the CBN should be more frequent and periodic. 6. Credit to real sectors – Small and Medium Scale Enterprises (SMEs), manufacturing and agriculture to take the largest share of loan. This can lead to expansion of capacity utilization and ultimately employment generation and expansion

50 Synonyms for Assistant

50 Synonyms for Assistant 50 Synonyms for Assistant 50 Synonyms for Assistant By Mark Nichol A number of words- many precise in meaning, as well as colorful and/or pejorative- exist to assist you in describing someone who works below another person. Here are fifty synonyms for assistant. 1. accomplice: an assistant, especially in the commission of a crime 2. adjunct: an assistant or associate (also, a short-term or junior faculty member, or something added or joined to another) 3. adjutant: a military officer who is an assistant and secretary to a superior officer 4. aide: an assistant, often in a military or political context (sometimes misspelled aid) 5. aide-de-camp: a military officer who is an assistant to a superior officer 6. apprentice: an assistant training to master a skill 7. attendant: an assistant or servant, or an employee who helps customers (also, someone who attends an event, or something that accompanies something else) 8. auxiliary: a member of a foreign military unit fighting alongside military units of another nation (also, a Catholic bishop subordinate to and not entitled to succeed the bishop of a diocese) 9. coadjutor: an assistant (also, a Catholic bishop subordinate to and often a successor to the bishop of a diocese) 10. cog: an assistant who is one of many or who has a minor role in a company or organization 11. deputy: a substitute or second in command (also, a member of a lower house of a legislative body) 12. domestic: a household servant 13. employee: someone who works for someone else or for a company or organization for pay; also spelled employe 14. factotum: a servant with multiple responsibilities (also, anyone with multiple responsibilities) 15. flunky: a person who performs various small tasks for an important or powerful person; also spelled flunkey and flunkie (also refers to a sycophant) 16. follower: someone in the service of another person 17. gofer: someone who performs errands or other simple tasks for another person (from â€Å"go for†) 18.–19. handmaiden: a female maid or servant; also handmaid (also, something inanimate that exists to assist or serve) 20. help: an employee or helper; often used collectively (â€Å"the help†) 21. helper: an assistant, especially an unskilled laborer who assists a skilled worker 22.–23. helpmate: an assistant who also serves as a companion, or a wife; also helpmeet 24. henchman: a trusted assistant (often used colloquially for a politician’s aide), or a subordinate member of a gang (originally, a page or squire to a nobleman) 25. hireling: someone paid to do an unpleasant or illicit task 26. lackey: a person who performs menial or unpleasant work for another (originally a footman or a general servant; also refers to a sycophant) 27. legman: someone who gathers information and/or runs errands for another person 28. lieutenant: someone who assists and/or substitutes for another person (also, a specific military rank or role) 29–30. maid/maidservant: someone who cleans and performs other tasks for another person (maid also refers to an unmarried girl or woman) 31–33. man Friday: a devoted, efficient assistant; also â€Å"girl Friday† or â€Å"gal Friday† (from the character named Friday in Robinson Crusoe) 34. mate: an assistant to a more skilled person (also various other meanings) 35. menial: a person who does boring or unpleasant work for another person 36. minion: someone who obeys another person 37. number two: a person immediately subordinate to a leader (from military slang) 38. personal assistant: someone who assists another person by performing tasks and running errands 39. retainer: a person who assists in a household 40. right hand: a key assistant 41. second-in-command: a person immediately subordinate to a leader (from military usage) 42. scullion: a kitchen servant 43. second: an assistant, especially to a boxer or a duelist (also various other meanings) 44. second fiddle: someone in a supporting role or with subordinate responsibilities (from an informal reference to the violinist who sits next to the principal violinist in a music ensemble) 45. servant: someone who assists another person in that person’s home, often by cleaning and/or cooking 46. sidekick: someone who assists another person; traditionally refers to an assistant and companion to a heroic character 47. steward: someone who manages someone else’s household and/or property (also, someone who provides food and drinks in an institution or on a vehicle or vessel, or who manages finances or carries out other administrative duties) 48. subordinate: someone who works below someone else 49. swamper: a handyman or helper (also someone inhabiting or familiar with a swampy area) 50. underling: a low-ranking person who works for someone more powerful Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? 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Planning and Controlling Capital Expenditures Essay

Planning and Controlling Capital Expenditures - Essay Example Thus most companies hold on capital expenditures every year, in an attempt to continuously upgrade and improve things like facilities, vehicles, buildings and equipment. A capital expenditure is considered deductible since it represents an improvement to the business and this deducted takes place over a specific life of an item, after than all at once as in the case of repair or maintenance expenditures. Sometimes it is cumbersome to determine the difference that exists in capital expenditure and a routine expense. Generally capital expenditure improves the worth of an asset while if it keeps the asset in working condition, it is referred to as routine expense. Hence, engaging in capital expenditure is a routine way of upgrading and expanding business whether done on a small scale or on a large scale (Pike and Neale, 2003). Large firms or corporations may acquire extra companies, as in the case of automotive giant which purchases another car manufacturer. Consequently, allowances are made in the budget of the company for the capital expenses, including the ones involving the replacement of items which are no longer repaired. Capital expenditures thus normally yield benefit over a long period of time resulting into fixed assets. The resource constraint is a frequent phenomenon of all the economic activities in business. In addition, when a firm is able to spend on specific items it is not willing to do so (Nice, 2002). Therefore, a systematic screening is established to accept or reject the investment proposal. Investment proposal are divided into two groups that is: Mutually exclusive proposals and independent proposals. Mutually exclusive proposals are proposals that have an alternative of doing the same thing. If one alternative is selected then the other one must be rejected for example: if in plant material facilities are required, they are grouped according to their economic benefits. The economic benefits of each of the proposal will be evaluated and the one with the contributing maximum economic benefits is chosen while the rest with less economic benefits are rejected (Pike and Neale, 2003). Ind ependent proposals are those items of capital expenditures that are always considered for different types of projects whose accomplishments are highly needed. In this case all independent proposals are independent of each other and are worthy for implementation. However, due to financial difficulties, priorities are assigned to each proposal according to the gravity of the need of the organization for example: in line with the material handling equipments, instruments such as machines for weighing, packing, stamping may be required(Cotts, 2007). Thus for mutually exclusive proposals the decision criterion is accept or reject while for independent proposals the decision criterion is mainly based in ranking. The decision taken is based on the methods of analyzing the capital budgeting decisions. The environment of capital expenditure proposals are widely grouped into: Expansion, Replacement, Diversification and Strategic proposals. Expansion proposals involve the capital expenditure t o boost the production capacity within the same line of production (Shah, 2007).The investments are basically made in the familiar areas of activity as it involves minimal business risk as compared to diversification, however, larger risk than replacement expenditure. Replacement capital expenditure implies replacement of old machinery by a new one or a modern one. This replacement only

HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT - Essay Example According to Martires (2004), â€Å"an important function of HRM is to ensure that the organization has an adequate supply of the right quantity and quality of human resources at all levels and in all positions at the right time and in the right place to man the jobs that have been properly identified and described† (p. 125). Recruitment and selection is therefore regarded as a crucial HRM function in one of the leaders in the hotel industry, Hilton Hotels. The current discourse hereby aims to present how recruitment and selection is applied at Hilton Hotels. Hilton Hotels have been synonymous to excellence in the hospitality industry. Its rich historical background was traced to as early as 1925 â€Å"when Conrad N. Hilton opened the first hotel to bear the Hilton name† (Hilton Worldwide, 2012). Today, Hilton boasts of carrying ten (10) brands in the hotel and hospitality industry, to wit: Waldorf Astoria, Conrad, Hilton Grand Vacations, Hilton Hotels & Resorts, Double Tree, Embassy Suites Hotels, Hilton Garden Inn, Hampton, Homewood Suites, and Home 2 Suites (Hilton Worldwide, 2012). Interested job applicants who envision having careers at Hilton could expect professional development and growth which starts with experiencing the acquisition process. As emphasized, Hilton Hotels’ â€Å"goal is to hire people who share our passion for hospitality and want to further their careers while remaining committed to our Vision, Mission and Values† (Hilton Worldwide, 2013, par. 2). The organization’s mission is explicitly stated as follows: â€Å"To be the preeminent global hospitality company - the first choice of guests, team members, and owners alike† (Hilton Worldwide, 2012, p. 1). Concurrently, their vision is â€Å"To fill the earth with the light and warmth of hospitality† (Hilton Worldwide, 2012, p. 1). Thus, it is their commitment to find people who share these ideals of exuding warmth through serving in

Social inclusion policy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Social inclusion policy - Essay Example Immigration policies, while developed at the EU or national level, impact social and economic matters at the community level. In May 2003, the EU addressed this issue at the Thessaloniki summit and in June of that year at the Commission’s Communication on Integration (Spencer, 2004). Four years earlier, the EU had proposed the establishment of an ‘area of freedom, security and justice’ that would be in place by May of 2004. Known as the ‘Tampere Programme,’ this plan was designed to initiate the Common European Asylum System. In November 2004, the ‘Hague Programme’ was agreed to by the EU in order to strengthen the Tampere strategy. This programme outlined wide-ranging goals that extended to 2009. The UK, according to provisions of the EU Treaty, is not required to accept EU directives regarding immigration and asylum. Generally speaking, the UK has rejected all proposals concerning illegal immigration but has accepted the majority of EU directives concerning legal immigration (Local Government International Bureau, 2005). According to Dick Oosting who heads the EU division of Amnesty International, the attacks by terrorists in the United States on 11 September, 2001 were among the reasons that the EU began to alter its priorities towards support for security issues and away from human rights concerns with regard to immigration. Oosting remarked, â€Å"Amnesty has felt this concern since the EU’s individual states began merging some of their immigration policies in 1999† (Lobjakas, 2004). People, even those who are citizens of the EU’s 15 member states, have had to deal with immigration barriers such as the lack of legal qualifications, language difficulties and a growing public resentment. Those persons from countries outside the EU are more likely to encounter additional hardships in these areas and are in need

Is Marxs analysis of capitalism still valid today Essay

Is Marxs analysis of capitalism still valid today - Essay Example These among other economic predictions are some of the reasons that supplement Marx’s relevance in the present time. The ideology of the social structures and economic interests dictate the political movements and intellectual conceptions of the people. This fact is evident in many circumstances in the present day. The political parties nowadays are controlled by the association of certain members of the public with clear and similar goals. These parties with a particular member associations define the economic state of the nation considering the people they represent. Marx developed this theory in 1840 so as to explain the different systems of royalism that France had that were affecting the social structure. In Marx’s view, he claimed that the economic interests revolved around the social groups (Schumpeter 2013, p. 20). Politically, it is possible to rise to power through reaching out to these groups and changing the economic status of a nation will certainly affect these groups. In the last presidential elections of the united states of America the tea party which supported the candidate mitt Romney was formed as a result of being fed up from the taxes of the Obama administration. The tea party started as a social group that were of the opinion they were being taxed more than the usual and the fruits of their taxes were not being experienced. This led to an association of people who wanted to change their financial status, through the changing of the political setup to attain the economic interests of the members (Sperber 2013 ). This is an example of the current events that are applicable to the theories that Marx put out in assessing the leadership of a place relative to the economic status of the region. The labor theory of value is also a Marx ideology which tends to describe the pricing of a commodity in relation to the cost of labor induced in production. A commodity

An organisation requires strong leadership rather than sound Essay

An organisation requires strong leadership rather than sound management if it is to become a learning organisation. Critic - Essay Example Strong leadership influences positive behaviour and strong belief among people in an organisation thus improving the overall performance of the organisation. Learning organisations are companies or organisations that develop programs to facilitate the learning of its people with the objective of continuously transforming itself to enable the company remain competitive in the harsh current business environment. Building an organisation into learning organisations begins with changing people’s rational of thinking and how they act to different business situations. Strong leadership is essential in shaping the working mentality of people in organisation, an element which is essential in shaping an institution to become a learning organisation. Sound management influences how different employees at different levels of management in the organisation relate with each other towards achieving the objectives of growing into a learning organisation (Gosling and Dennison, 2003). The succ ess of institution is however hinged on a number of factors that are under the control of the management and the people in the organization as whole. Sound management refers to the practical plan and control mechanisms put in place by an organisation to enable it implement its policies and organisational programs. Organizations struggle to adopt sound management practices hoping that such practices will improve their chances of growing into greater institutions that can be emulated by other organisations. Success in an organization however requires strong leadership capabilities as opposed to the adoption of sound management practices without improving the leadership abilities of the organization (Gosling and Dennison, 2003). The presence of good leadership in an organization can be felt throughout the entire organization through the sound policies that the organization implements and its ability to handle different challenging situations surrounding the business. Good leadership de velops a great corporate and organizational culture that guide the progress made by the organization and its success in the future decisions. The traits and features of a successful leader are quite evident in the way they handle different situations in an organization that affects the development of an organization. This paper will evaluate the traits of a great leader in organizations and how these traits shape the image of the business and its success. In providing the basis for the conclusion that strong leadership is important for an organisation that intends to grow into a learning organisation, this paper will analyse the various strong leadership theories and how they influences the development of an organisation. To demonstrate the choice of strong leadership as the best way of ensuring the growth of a company into a learning organisation, this paper will discuss three dimensions of strong leadership. In these dimensions, the different theories of leaderships will be discus sed to demonstrate my choice of strong leadership. The attributes of strong leadership is the second dimension that the paper will discuss with bias towards how these attributes can enable an organisation to grow into a learning organisation. In the final dimension, the weaknesses of sound management will be evaluated as compared to the strengths of strong leaders

Project Management Essay Example for Free

Project Management Essay The pursuit for a successful project when a project or service needs to be established that is outside of the normal functional operations, the technique of project management is imperative. The efforts of the three â€Å"C† are communication, cooperation, and coordination that all work together in a profound approach to create a winning coalition with the project team members and senior management. The three â€Å"C† are essentially to providing the means in allowing project management to function in positive environment. The Lockheed Martin Corporation is one of the companies that captures the three â€Å"C† concept that led the organization to being one of the premier leaders in technology – that is why incorporating a project management function within a project management office is essential to staying a leader in the industry. The Lockheed Martin Corporation is an advanced technology company that was found in March 1995 after a merger of two profound technology companies; Lockheed Corporation and Martin Marietta Corporation. The Lockheed Martin Corporation employs over 120,000 people in the world with concentration in research, design, development, and manufacture as well as integration of advanced technology systems, products and services to clients that are around the world (Lockheedmartin. com, 2008). The Lockheed Martin Corporation prides itself in being a leader with extraordinary talent and creativity to bring new and fresh ideas to the marketplace. The Lockheed Martin Corporation major clientele is the U. S. Department of Defense and the U. S. Federal Government agencies to provide lead systems integrator and information technology. The IT services that Lockheed Martin Corporation provides is one of the finest in the world providing systems integration and training to the U. S. Government. The additional business is providing international government and some commercial sales of products, services and platforms. Therefore, in the pursuit of business interests, the decision establish a project team to explore a new device technology chip that will enhance the speed and calculation of previous system integration will enhance the brand equity of Lockheed Martin Corporation in the market. The goal of project management is to manage and complete the delivery of the client’s deliverable on time and on budget. Therefore, the objective of project management within an organization is the ability to achieve the company’s strategic goals and mission. The project manager initiative is to follow the client’s purpose for the development of the product or service with stated specifications with the PM effectively planning accordingly. The focus on the project management objective allows for a central concentrated effort on the Project Manager to outline the needed tasks- that is outside of the daily organizations functions as business as usual- to creating the specific need for the client domestically and internationally (Wild, Wild, and Han, 2006). The collective consensus of project management within an organization to consider having a Project Management Office (PMO) is a productive step in centralizing the need for better planning. The reason for the project management office is the centralization of the responsibility and authority for the achievement of organizational goal when the assignment doesn’t fall within the confinement of routine work. The understanding of the Project Management Office identification what situation constitutes a project or non-project that will present a temporary nature; the following will apply to reach such a determination: a. The opportunity or market window is usually temporary with some projects having a limited time frame to produce the product or service. . A capability to perform a service, such as business functions supporting production or distribution. c. A product or artifact that is produced is quantifiable and can be an end item in itself or a component item. d. A market demand that requires a need to satisfy in a given period of time. e. A technological advance that ranges from new software upgrades or internal systems. f. Consumer requests to offer a better adaptability to a product. g. Designing a new advanced transportation vehicle for a specific demographic. . The building a new construction that adds a new division or for a client. Therefore, the determination is agreed upon for completing a project outside of the normal operations of the organization, a focused effort must be made for a successfully completion (Armstrong and Kotter, 2007). The objectives of projects and operations are at times very different in keeping the company working towards the same goal, even though, the organization’s objectives for business enterprise is still the core initiative. The project management agenda is a means of organizing activities that is accomplishing through the application (Haritz, 2004). The integration of the application of the project management processes within the organization is required for a managing of the initiating, planning, executing, monitoring and controlling, and closing. The senior management team commitment to quality and delivering excellent products or services are dependent on employees to comply accordingly. Therefore, the importance of project management is crucial to presenting a professional responsibility to its stakeholders including customers, the performing organization, and the public for meeting company’s initiatives. The acquiring of management by project is related to organizational culture that is close to the project management culture described in the pursuit for execution. The following aspect to consider in the positive attributes of using project management in the organization is the benefit for sharing information for effective decision making.

A Study On Common Social Classes Sociology Essay

A Study On Common Social Classes Sociology Essay Karl Marx and Max Weber are without question the two most influential sociologists to have emerged in the 19th century. Marxs theories are seen as the foundation of modern communism, and he himself is seen as a revolutionist. Marxs work has been very influential and has stood as an inspiration for social change. Max Weber, writing a generation later, emerged as a giant in nineteenth- and early twentieth-century German sociology and social theory. Whereas Marx anticipated the inevitability of revolutionary change, Weber offered a more staid and pessimistic vision. Society is seen as divided into four groups, the upper class, middle class, working class and lower class. This is known as the class system (http://www.gpwu.ac.jp/~biddle/the_class_sysytem.htm). The upper class tend to consist of people with inherited wealth and includes some of the oldest families, with many of them being titled aristocrats. The upper classes are defined by their title, but also by their education and by their pastimes (http://www.en.articlesgratuits.com/social-stratification-in-great-britain-id3024.php). The middle class are the majority of society today. They include high skilled craftsmen, lower and middle management and business people. The working class consists of farmers and factory workers. The lower class consists of people with a low income, low level of education and high unemployment rates. There are two significant sociologists in the discussion about social class, Karl Marx and Max Weber. Karl Marx was one of the first writers to analyse class differences. His understanding of class was someones relationship to the means of production. He saw class as being a phenomenon of any society, where ownership of wealth and the means of production (M.O.P) in the capitalist system, dominated the wage earners or proletariat. Marx considered that there were two prominent classes- the owners of the means of production and the workers. Marx talked mainly about the two great classes- owners and workers, but he was aware of a third class, which he called petit bourgeoisie (http://copland.udel.edu/~cmarks/What%20is%20social%20class.htm). This was the middle class which were owners of small businesses. Marx argued that the only thing that the workers owned was their ability to work (http://copland.udel.edu/~cmarks/What%20is%20social%20class.htm), what he called ‘labour power. The owners had power over workers as they paid the workers wages and could determine what wage they rece ived, and exploited them. As a result, there is a basic conflict of interest between the two classes. The worker becomes all the poorer the more wealth he produces, the more his production increases in power and range. The worker becomes an ever cheaper commodity the more commodities he creates. With the increasing value of the world of things proceeds in direct proportion to the devaluation of the world of men. Labour produces not only commodities; it produces itself and the and the worker as a commodity- and does so in the proportion in which it produces commodities generally. (Marx, Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts (1844) cited in http://www.historyguide.org/intellect/marx.html). Marx believed all societies are class societies with people set against each other by their differing relationship to the means of production. He felt that the lack of powers of workers was the source of exploitation and the basis of class conflict (http://copland.udel.edu/~cmarks/What%20is%20social%20class.htm). Marx argued that the basic contradictions contained in a capitalist economic system would lead to its eventual destruction. The proletariat would overthrow the bourgeoisie and seize the means of production, the source of power. Property would be communally owned and, all members of society would now share the same relationship to the means of production, bringing an end to the exploitation and as a result a classless society would emerge. In Capital (1867/1967), for example, Marx talked about the capitalists as werewolves and vampires who suck the blood out of the workers, and he was very sympathetic to the plight of the prolectariat. (Ritzer, Sociological Theory, 4th edition, Singapore, 1996, p 29). Marx argued that the class struggle was the driving force of social change. Marx also talked about class consciousness. Class consciousness as occurs when false consciousness has been replaced by a full awareness of the true situation, by a realization of the nature of exploitation, like the workers realising they are being used. When owners convinced workers that their situations were compatible, this Marx called false consciousness. Marx noted a difference between a ‘class in itself and a ‘class for itself. He believed a class in itself is a social group whose members share the same relationship to the means of production. A class for itself is a social group where its members have class consciousness and class solidarity. Class solidarity, which he believed was when members of a class develop a common identity and recognise their shared interests and unite. Marx believed that certain factors in the development of a capitalist economy would accelerate its loss of positi on (Macionis, Plummer, Sociology: A Global Introduction, 2005, 3rd edition, p. 202-206). These factors would end in the polarization of the two main classes. The gap between the proletariat and the bourgeoisie will become greater and the difference between these two groups will become even more extreme. Marx argued in the course of a working day, workers produce more than is actually needed by employers to repay the cost of hiring them. This surplus value is the source of profit, which capitalists are able to put to their own use (Giddens and Griffiths, Sociology, 5th Edition, p.301). Marx made the essential point that class was primarily based upon economic circumstances. Max Weber didnt agree with Marxs view that power derived only from economic relations and the relationship to private property of the MOP. The scope of Webers analysis ranges more widely than that of Marx; the origins of capitalism, the development of capitalism, the nature of a future society, and concepts and approaches that Marx downplayed- religion, ideas, values, meaning, and social action (http://uregina.ca/~gingrich/o902.htm). Weber also talked about power, class, status and party, as he was aware of its value. By class Weber is referring to ones participation in the market either by capital, skill or education. It refers to the unequal distribution of economic rewards. By status, Weber argues that groups form because their members share a similar status situation, like priests and monarchy. Unlike classes, members of status groups are aware of their common status situation. By party Weber means a group of people who commit to some practical goal or activity. He believed part ies were groups which are specifically concerned with influencing policies and making decisions in the interests of their members. These groups include trade unions and professional associations (Macionis, Plummer, Sociology: A Global Introduction, 2005, third Edition, p 206). Weber disagreed with Marx on a number of his theories. Weber saw no evidence to support the theory of the polarization of classes. Although he did see some decline in the numbers of the petty bourgeoisie due to competition from large companies, he argued that they enter white-collar or skilled manual trades rather than being depressed into the ranks of unskilled manual workers. Weber argued that the middle class increases rather than declines as capitalism develops. Therefore Weber saw a diversification of classes and an expansion of the white-collar middle class, rather than polarization as Marx did. Weber also disagreed with Marx on the idea of the proletarian revolution. Weber argued that people with similar class situations would not just develop a common identity and try to overthrow the bourgeoisie and seize the means of production. He believed that workers who were dissatisfied with their class situation would respond in different ways. Webers theories on social stratification are significant, because they show that other factors of social stratification and not just class, affect peoples lives (Giddens and Griffiths, Sociology, 5th Edition, p.302-303). Max Weber and Karl Marx had a difference of opinion over what was the driving force behind changes in society. But they both agreed that class is a function of economic participation and does not see capitalism as an idealistic form of society. Like Marx, Weber saw class in economic terms, arguing that classes develop in market economies in which individuals compete for economic gain. He defined a class as a group of individuals who share a similar position in a market economy and receive similar economic rewards. This Weber called is market situation. Marx and Weber argued these theories during the 19th century. Much of Marxs predictions have been wrong. Capitalist societies did not become increasingly polarised between labour and capital, instead the middle class grew larger and larger and the importance of manual labour steadily declined. Only a quarter of a century ago, some 40 per cent of the working population was in blue-collar work. Now, in the UK, only about 18 per cent is, and this proportion is still dropping. Moreover, the conditions under which working-class people are living, and the styles of live they are following, are altering. Giddens and Griffiths, Sociology, 5th Edition, p.315. Some critics today question the theoretical and historical validity of ‘class as an analytic construct or as a political actor. In this line, some question Marxs reliance on 19th century notions that linked science with the idea of ‘progress. Many observe that capitalism has changed much since Marxs time and that class differences and relationships are much more complex. Although Marxs prediction of an imminent collapse of the capitalist system and the proletarian revolution has not materialised, some of the most forceful passages in Marx book the Communist Manifesto actually refer to the greatest achievements of the bourgeoisie class and to complete changes in the ways human history has been made after its ascendance to power. Marx can then be credited to be one of the first thinkers to recognise the fact that the capitalist system represented the biggest breakthrough in human history. Marx predicted that as capitalism developed, a polarization of classes would take place between the oppressed and exploited proletariat on the one hand, and the exploiters on the other. Such class polarization has not occurred (Carter and Stokes, Democratic Theory Today: Challenges for the 21st Century, 1st Edition, 2002, p.254). In the last half of the 20th century, almost half of the people in the world lived in countries governed by principles based on Marxs work such as the Soviet Union and the countries of Eastern Europe. Although it is true that many of Marxs predictions about the course of the revolutionary movement were wrong, there is no doubt that he was a true genius. Nowadays, in the 21st century, there is more focus on inequality and not so much class. Equality is the state of being equal or the same. People are living in poverty if their income and resources (material, cultural and social) are so inadequate as to preclude them from having a standard of living which is regarded as acceptable by Irish society generally. As a result of inadequate income and resources people may be excluded and marginalised from participating in activities which are considered the norm for other people in society National Anti-Poverty Strategy, http://www.socialinclusion.ie/poverty.html Modern society believes everyone should be given an equal chance to succeed in life, and stresses equal opportunities. But we all know not everybody is treated equally in reality. Marxs view of class was about someones relationship to the means of production, that isnt the case anymore. There is cultural, material as well as social inequality in Ireland today. A report published in 2002, revealed Ireland to be one of the richest countries but also one of the most unequal. Social researcher Brian Harvey found that the treatment of asylum seekers and refugees was inadequate and that there were difficulties for poor people getting fast access to justice (http://www.rte.ie/news/2002/0404/report.html). In another report released in 2008, there was a study on the health, health behaviour and well being among children from the travelling community, immigrant children, children with disabilities and children from disadvantaged schools in comparison to other children. The findings showed tha t there were inequalities in health among children from these groupings and the other children, so it proves that children just arent being treated the same (http://www.nuigalway.ie/hbsc/documents/press_release__7th_oct.pdf). People look down their noses at the travelling community, most pubs and shops dont even let them onto their premises. People look down at the travelling community as they see them as having no house, no job and see them as being lower class. We can see the difference in class when this happens. Ireland went from being one of the poorest countries to being one of the richest and the majority of Irish society is now working class. It seems gender, disability, ethnicity, age, sexuality and religion are just some of the groups that are more likely to experience inequality in Ireland. Conclusion While both Marx and Weber were interested by the changes happening in society in the industrialization, Marx was looking for a revolution while Weber was exploring the factors as to why capitalism had come to pass. Though many of Marxs predictions are yet to materialize, there is no doubt that he was one of the most influential thinkers of the 19th century. Exploring how the capitalist economic system generates conflict between classes, Marxs analysis of social stratification has had enormous influence on sociological thinking in recent decades. Webers writing on stratification is significant because it shows other factors of stratification other than class that strongly influences peoples lives. Weber discussed class, status and party as important separate aspects of social stratification thus providing a more comprehensive analysis than that of Marx. Thanks to Marx and Weber we have a better understanding of social class. Bibliography †¢ www.businessdictionary.com/definition/social-class.html †¢ http://www.gpwu.ac.jp/~biddle/the_class_sysytem.htm †¢ http://www.en.articlesgratuits.com/social-stratification-in-great-britain-id3024.php †¢ http://copland.udel.edu/~cmarks/What%20is%20social%20class.htm †¢ Marx, Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts (1844) cited in http://www.historyguide.org/intellect/marx.html †¢ Ritzer, Sociological Theory, 4th edition, Singapore, 1996 †¢ Macionis, Plummer, Sociology: A Global Introduction, 2005, 3rd edition †¢ Giddens and Griffiths, Sociology, 5th Edition †¢ http://uregina.ca/~gingrich/o902.htm †¢ Carter and Stokes, Democratic Theory Today: Challenges for the 21st Century, 1st Edition, 2002 †¢ http://www.socialinclusion.ie/poverty.html †¢ http://www.rte.ie/news/2002/0404/report.html †¢ http://www.nuigalway.ie/hbsc/documents/press_release__7th_oct.pdf †¢ Albrow, Sociology; The Basics, 1999, London †¢ Gerth and Mills, From Max Weber Essays in Sociology, 2009, Oxon †¢ Ballantine, The Sociology of Education â€Å"A Systematic Analysis†, Fifth Edition, New Jersey, 2001 †¢ Bellamy and Ross, A Textual Introduction to Social and Political Theory, Manchester, 1996

Mary Rowlandson :: essays research papers

History Mary Rowlandson was an Indian captive, and also an American writer. She was born in England approximately 1637-1638. She immigrated to Lancaster, Massachusetts with her parents. Joseph Rowlandson became a minister in 1654 and two years later he married Mary. They together had four children, one whom died as an infant, but the others were Joseph, Mary, and Sarah. On February 20, 1676, Mary and her three children were taken captive in their home during a raid of the Native Americans uprising known as King Philip’s War along with 23 other people. Her children were the ages 14, 10 and 6. Sarah was 6; she died in captivity due to her wounds. She also lost her sister, brother-in-law, nieces and nephews. Of the 23 people who were captured in the raid, thirteen of them were Rowlandson family members. Mary was sold as a slave and her two children went to other masters. Mary Rowlandson was ransomed at ₤20 just three months after she was captured. She was returned to Princeton, Massachusetts on May 2, 1676. Soon after that, her two surviving children were returned. Joseph Rowlandson died in 1691 at the age of forty-seven. It was said that Mary died shortly after her husband’s death but come to find out just nine months after the death of her husband, Mary married Connecticut leader, Capt. Samuel Talcott. There were no more known details of her life except for a court testimony in 1707. Mary White Rowlandson Talcott died at the age of seventy-three on January 5, 1711. Works   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The narrative that Rowlandson wrote was originally titled â€Å"The Sovereignty & Goodness of God, Together with the Faithfulness of His Promise Displayed: Being a Narrative of the Captivity and Restauration of Mrs. Mary Rowlandson Commended by her to all that Desire to Know the Lord’s Doings to, and Dealings with Her. Especially to her Dear Children and Relations.† In 1682, the title was dropped and republished the narrative under the title â€Å"Narrative of the Captivity and Restoration of Mrs. Mary Rowlandson† which is best known as today. This book is separated into â€Å"removes.† The first three â€Å"removes† focus on her desperate efforts to care for her dying daughter. The rest of the â€Å"removes† focus on the difficulties she faced while being kidnapped and held captive.

Global Warming Essay -- Greenhouse Effect Climate Change

Global Warming, also known as the Greenhouse effect, is a problem everyone will soon have to face. The people of the younger generations should be educated about what Global Warming is and that it is caused due to the way people are treating the environment. Planet Earth is estimated to be 4.5 billion years old, and life on earth has existed for more than 3.5 billion years. Humans have been on earth for 2 to 3 million years. It is only been in the past 200 years people have been affected by global warming. The last 40 years have been the most damaging.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  As the impacts of human influences have grown, so have the risks associated with those impacts. New technologies carry increasing risks, and the scale, frequency, and impacts of disaster caused or influenced by human activity are growing tremendously. The risks to the Earth ¡Ã‚ ¦s natural systems are becoming significantly concerning.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The world ¡Ã‚ ¦s population, currently 5.2 billion has grown from about 3 billion in 1960, and around 2 billion in 1925. Today it increased by almost 90 million each year, and is likely to reach 10 billion by 2025(Corson 4).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The reason we currently have an atmosphere crisis is because of human impact on the gases which make up our atmosphere. Our atmosphere, which is made up of four distinct layers blankets our planet and protects up in many way. One way it protects us if from the harmful rays the sun radiates on our planet. Each layer differs from the others in temperature, density, composition and in the way it absorbs radiation from the sun. The atmosphere itself is some 300 miles thick. The first layer is the Troposphere. It is the lowest layer and extends higher than any airplane can travel, about 6.8 miles. Air in this layer is heated by the earth itself and for every 1000 feet the temperature drops 3.5 „a F. When it reaches the top of this layer the temperature is about - 70„a f. The next layer extends to about 30 miles. It is less dense than the underlying layer. Unlike the troposphere, temperature increases with altitude. This warming is caused by a layer of ozone.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ozone is a form of oxygen. The ozone absorbs most of the sun ¡Ã‚ ¦s ultraviolet radiation. This has two important effects, First, it warms the air in the stratosphere. Second, it prevents much of the harmful rays from reaching the earth surface. Tempe... ...tities of pollutants are pouring into the atmosphere , posing health threat to humans, damaging the environment and changing the Earth ¡Ã‚ ¦s climate. Historically, the air has renewed itself through interaction with vegetation and the oceans. Today, however, this process is threatened by increasing use of fossil fuels, expanding industrial production, and growing use of motor vehicles.(Corson 220)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The most common and widespread pollutants currently emitted by human activities are sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, volatile organic compounds particulate. Dozens of toxic chemicals are commonly found in the air surrounding urban areas.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In recent years, many industrial nations have controlled air pollution with some success. Europe and North America are now suffering serious damage from acid deposition. Increasing pollution from the growing use of motor vehicles plagues many nations. Car sales in Western industrialized nations rose 71 percent from 1970 to 1986. Sources Cited National Research Council (NRC). 1993. Research to Protect, Restore, and Manage the Environment. ("The Corson Report.") Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

Employee Participation Essay

Of all the subjects controlled by the societal, public, and employment strategy set by the European Union (EU), the intrinsic worth of implementing worker participation in the administration of businesses on a wide extent has turned out to be highly contentious over the years. The stipulations put forward by the EU, for example, equivalent opportunities for employees as that of employers, operational or working timing, and unusual contracts, all of them, time and again, have triggered disagreements amid employers. Despite the fact that an increasing number of organizations are turning out to be of interest in employee participation as a possible measure for expanding labor efficiency and trimming down nonattendance, staff resignation rate, and rate of recurrence of industrial disagreements. Considered as the most hostile and invasive, is that kind of employee participation, which outwardly inflicts constrictions on the management’s perquisites or their privilege for that matter. Traditional executives dread, though, that due to the pressures on an employee participation system, grounding on their temporary, peculiar interests would, among other things, steer to too much wage upsurge. These could possibly lead to a decline of internal principal on hand for investing or capital spending in the short run and for moving the available capital out of the country in the long run. It is much unexpected that there has been very slight economic evaluation of the present familiarity with employee participation. The majority of researches have dealt with the topic entirely from a philosophical, historical, or sociological perspective. (Svejnar, pp. 1, n. d. ) Recently, employee participation has grown into a central point in labor-management discourse and a significant matter on the European political arena. (Raskin, n. p. , 1976) In certain countries systemized work force has been revealing an urge for involvement in management, as a way of democratizing the whole business systems and policies. Lately, though, this gravity has intensified, nonetheless, creating numerous problems, which are in fact, compounded by a number of reasons, one, and a very major, of which is the utter assortment of standing official and legal frameworks within the associate states of the EU. Various Systems followed by the EU Member States Considering the member states of the EU, the employee participation and representation at executive level, for instance, is obligatory in private corporations situated in Germany, Austria, Luxembourg, and most Scandinavian countries. On the other hand, countries like France and the Netherlands practice the ‘hybrid form’, while there are still others like Greece and Spain, which allow for this kind of system only in the communal or public sector. In contrast, countries such as, Italy, Belgium and the UK constitute no stipulation at all. (EIRO, pp. I-IV, 1998) The principles and conventions regulating works councils and coalition representation at workplace or sub-executive levels evenly complicated. In the Scandinavian countries, Italy, Ireland and the UK, there happens to be ‘single channels’ of representation via the joint associations. In case of ‘dual channel’ system of representation, the employees are spoken for by work councils, which function beside the unions. In countries like France and Belgium, the manager presides over the work council; however in the majority of other countries, for example Portugal, the Netherlands, and Germany, the work councils simply contain employee representatives. On the other hand, in Ireland and the UK, employee representation has conventionally been identified merely on a voluntary base, even though elsewhere it is regulated by established rules or communal agreements. Rationales The concepts of a ‘democratic organization’, ‘employee involvement and ‘employee participation’ have sustained arguments and disagreements. The degree to which the management is ready to let their employees to take part in matters concerning decisions about their lives at work is in fact one of the most complicated, vibrant debated features of employment relations as they have developed in technologically advanced countries. All concerned parties differ in their interests and viewpoints. In general, the managers suppose that the employees should be assimilated into organization’s frameworks to make certain that they realize the organization’s intentions, targets and objectives and can add into its success. Unions, on the other hand, may possibly be keen to hold out their impact over the management’s decision making to making sure that their own priorities, for example power over work patterns, or in cases when employment patterns are stable, are suitably met. System Followed by Germany The system of employee participation is developed and regulated by the German co-determination law. This law making has its origin in the Weimar Constitution of 1919, which, grounded on a social-democratic philosophy, created constraints on personal rights over possessions and took care for the social privileges and entitlement to life of its people. Under the Article No. 65 of the very Constitution, it was publicly stated that the waged working staff was to be granted correspondence with managers in settling with salaries and working circumstances and to be allowed a full opportunity to express opinions when deciding the overall economic advancement. The 1920 Works Councils Act specified that organizations with no less than twenty workers ought to set up a works council made up of representatives opted for at workplaces, which consult with the board on the carrying out of business objectives. Two years later, the directive was revised to allow works council representation of a couple of their members in directorial management of corresponding organizations and restricted involvement in the board’s decision making process. These were the fundamental developments that molded the base for co-determination law. Both the Weimar Constitution and the Works Council were done away with as the Nazi’s rule made its entrance. The directive, on the other hand, was revitalized in the shape of the Coal, Iron and Steel Industry Co-determination Act of 1951. The Act was originally designed for the coal and steel firms employing greater than a thousand employees but then later, in 1976, the Co-determination Act enfolding all large organizations was legislated and is presently in effect. In case of major and significant organizations, the present structure grants for an equal number of twenty representatives to in the same way be represented by stockholders and employees, with the stockholders decided on at the general stockholders’ meeting. The worker representatives include delegates from workers’ associations and those chosen from all the different levels of workers. The twofold technique of industrial relations in Germany has maintained collective bargaining and the ascertaining of salary and specifications, not together with the subject of participation for example information release, discussions, meetings and co-determination. Here the industrial relations system has been portrayed as ‘sanctioned, integrated, and cooperative’. Focusing on the effects of employee participatory system in Germany, regarding the wages, both in short and long-run, the representation is said to be quite a fruitful one, because it gives evident examples of several participatory systems from the post World War II events to the Co determination law of 1951, which provided employees with 50% representation on the executive boards. The very Act is also said to have created the rank of a labor director on the management panels of all corporations. Despite of the fact that the employee participatory and representative groups in Germany were considered as distinct from the trade unions and the process of wage determination, an uncertainty comes up that whether their effect on wages was in fact missing. In real, there happens to be a considerable connection between unions and the employee representative groups in relation to their workforce, their objectives and activities. But without any reason, it is said that the union and board representatives diverge substantially in their opinions as to the influence of employee participation and representation on wages. Having a unique system of employee participation in corporate management, the German corporate system is said to have some gain. The very advantage appears when it is about effectively testing out and verifying mistreatments by the management. The German corporate system is a twofold one, where the administrative management performs the role of corporate surveillance, whereas the executive board accountable for execution. Originally, the Co determination Act was envisioned to arbitrate the possible disagreements or conflicting interests between the employees and employers and was highly in the favor of workforce. Currently it has been moving on, assuming to an increased level, the function of managing the corporate administration. Although there is some disapproval regarding the fact that the legislation has mislaid its essence with reported circumstances where the board treated employee representatives, in a way to high officials accommodated for and by them, it stays to be a considerable extent to elevate the understanding of societal responsibilities and obligations amid corporate managers and their movements for public causes. (Otsuka, pp. 3, 2006) System followed in the UK In the UK, the whole world is observed through a prism of collective bargaining by unions, which has provided industrial relations with an argumentative placement. Contrasting with the ‘sanctioned, integrated, and cooperative’ industrial relations followed in Germany, the UK’s system is ‘voluntary, dispersed, and opposition-based’. (William, pp. V, 1988) However, such divergences haven’t been taken much into consideration by the Commission of the European Communities, when it is time for them to propose systems of employee participation. In the year 1970, the European company statute and the Fifth directive were founded widely on the basis of the German model but did not have much appeal for the UK. Moreover, amid the important factors, particularly governments, point of views regarding employee participation have gone through periods of interest and aggression. Taking successive UK governments as instances, the governments in the 1970s, both the Conservative and Labour, were normally in favour of the propositions included in the European company statute and the Fifth directive for employee participation and representation at management’s level. But on the other hand, in the 1980s and 1990s, the Conservative governments were unbendingly against all systems of employee participation, even though these situations were, as a minimum, partly looked over when the succeeding Labour government, in 1997, endorsed the social chapter, and in so doing established European Works Councils into the UK. (Gold, pp. 2 , n. d. ) If looked upon in the past, the Commission has been prosperous in achieving approval for the system of employee participation when it is connected with certain areas of industrial relations. According to the 1975 directive on collective redundancies, the employers are required to notify employee representatives concerning the particulars and to refer to them with a view to pursuing an agreement. Then there was an ‘acquired rights directive’ of 1977, after that, the ‘health and safety framework directive’ of 1989, which provided the employees the privilege to acquire information on threat considerations and safety measures. More recently, the statute adopted in 2004, provides employee representatives in the organizations included several rights to information and consultation without any bias. However, the implementation of all these employee rights has time and again, proved challenging in the UK, because the commandments put away the characterization of ‘employee representatives’ up to the state’s legislation. Under the critical environment of sinking union membership, and prior to the arrival of legislative stipulations for union recognition, leave alone worker representation, this has implied that managers frequently do not possess representatives to advise or consult. In 1994, the European Court of Justice, brought forward two litigations against the UK for failing to suitably implement the directives passed in 1975, and the transfer of responsibilities, instructed that it was mandatory for all the EU states to establish appropriate systems for assigning suitable employee representatives. In the UK, the Bullock Committee was established by the government to assess the matter of executive-level employee representation, but managers and several other officials of the labour movement proved intimidating, and the Conservative governments voted for during the course of 1980s and 1990s ruled out any possibility of lawmaking on the issue, as it has a need of an undisputed, common vote on the Council. Nonetheless, a Green Paper was published in 1975, by the Commission, to inspect the major disagreements provoked. The Social and Economic Committee along with the European Parliament both argued upon the topic in detail. To close, the Commission assumed an amended text, in 1953, on the draft Fifth which has not been withdrawn officially up till now. Conclusion In my opinion, keeping in mind all the aforementioned prospects of employee participation and representation, the UK should certainly respect all the directives passed by the EU and all other Unions formed in coalition with all the European states and should give up its present times general framework, under which representation only occurs through unions, and which leaves large gaps in stipulation in those organizations where union membership is vulnerable and sometimes even non-existent. It is necessary for the UK to revive itself from being isolated in the Council, and should bring about measures in order to mobilise its blocking minority. Following the German twofold system, which is better in every way, and also being successful in introducing European Works Councils, it has been foreseen and seen respectively, by the UK employers themselves that this has enhanced their effectiveness in granting a medium for information exchange